Rui Biscaia

This research explored the role of athlete on-and off-field brand image on consumer commitment toward the athlete and associated team, preference by the athlete's sponsor, and the mediating effect of consumers' self-brand connection on these relationships. Data were collected from fans of soccer players through a cross-sectional survey promoted on social media platforms. A partial least squares structural equation model examined the direct effects of both athlete brand dimensions on athlete commitment, team commitment, and athlete sponsor preference, and the indirect effects mediated via self-brand connection. The results indicate that an athlete's on-field image is significantly related to athlete sponsor preference, while the off-field image influences athlete commitment and team commitment. Self-brand connection is influenced by athlete off-field image and mediates the relationship between off-field image and athlete commitment. This study contributes to a better understanding of how to manage athlete brands and linkages between fans, athletes, and associated entities.

One of the most valuable assets a sport entity possesses is its brand. However, existing sport branding research has largely examined brands at an individual level and not taken into account the relationships between
connected brands or the actual behavioral outcomes of branding. This article provides an overview of the current state of sport branding research; proposes an extended conceptualization of sport brand architecture
within a sport brand ecosystem framework to guide future examination of sport branding research; introduces the four articles published in this special issue; and presents insights from industry experts from different brand entities within the sport brand ecosystem. Thus, this article provides a foundation to further examine brand relationships and actual behavioral outcomes of sport branding to contribute to our theoretical and managerial knowledge on sport brand architecture within the sport brand ecosystem.
Keywords: brand, brand relationship, brand architecture, consumer behavior

Research question: Fans’ perception that sponsors are a financial need illustrating the increased commercialisation in sports is not always aligned with their view of a club’s culture. This perceived imbalance represents a challenge in the online marketing strategies of sports clubs. When club managers decide on the content of online social media posts/messages related to sponsors, they should be aware of potential fan reactions. Therefore, this study analyses how sponsor-related and other online social media communication of football clubs affect fan reactions.
Research methods: We analyse Facebook postings (N = 4,603) published by German first division football clubs. After classifying postings regarding their content, we regress ‘Reactions’, ‘Shares’, and ‘Angry’ reactions on the content variable and further covariates. Linear regression models, Poisson regression models, and general dominance statistics are used for exploring variance within the data.
Results and Findings: Fans react considerably angrier to sponsor-related posts than to other content except for defeat-related postings. Regarding overall reactions and shares, sponsor-related posts perform worst among different contents. In addition, the content of posts is elementary to negative reactions, but of less importance to overall reaction rates.
Implications: Sports managers and sponsors should be aware of the potential negative shift in reactions when using clubs’ social media channels to share sponsor-related content. We recommend releasing sponsor-related posts as videos on game days to decrease the fraction of negative responses and simultaneously maximise the overall reactions.

Despite the advances in theory about how organisations should manage consumer experience, there is a lack of understanding about how variables such as consumer-to-consumer interaction, content engagement and effective communication affect consumer online experiences, with this being particularly evident in the event industry.
This study examines online event experiences and their effects on consumers’ behavioural intentions towards mega events. Using a sample of 1726 participants from four countries (United States, United Kingdom, Brazil and South Africa), a structural equation model was conducted. Results indicate that online content engagement
and effective communication influence consumers’ online experience and positively affects their behavioural intentions towards the event. Online consumer-to-consumer interaction also showed a positive effect
on consumers’ future behavioural intentions. The findings highlight the need for event organisers to reconsider the rising importance of consumers who are likely to follow the event online and to understand the factors that shape their online experience.

The purpose of this study is to extend previous research on organisational issues of sport mega-events through the development of a framework for the Olympic Games. A three-step approach was taken. Firstly, a systematic literature review was conducted based on journal articles, academic books and official reports published by the  International Olympic Committee (IOC) and Olympic Games Organising Committees (OGOC). Secondly, the issues identified within the media regarding the 2016 Olympic Games were analysed. Lastly, semi-structured interviews were conducted with ten stakeholders to further examine the organisational issues of the 2016 Rio Olympic Games. A new extended conceptual framework of organisational issues associated with the Olympic Games is then proposed. Issue categories faced by the organising committee include politics, marketing, media and visibility, financial, planning, negotiation and ethics, operations, infrastructure, human resources, social, environmental and legacy. These 12 dimensions of organisational issues account for a total of 76 specific issues. The paper provides critical information to aid the IOC and OGOCs in understanding organisational issues that may arise in future of Olympic Games.

The purpose of this study was to present a framework to aid understanding athlete brand life cycle and how to extend it. A thorough
review of the literature was conducted to create the proposed framework. Five stages were identified including brand introduction, brand growth, brand maturity, brand decline and brand reinvention, as well as athlete capital that may occur for some athletes. This study extends prior research by providing an initial idea on how to develop and manage an athlete brand life cycle throughout his/her career.

The purpose of this study was to propose a conceptual framework for understanding how to establish athletes as brands. Based on an extensive literature review, the proposed model includes the antecedents of athlete brand, its measurement dimensions and implications. Five antecedents are included in the model: media, oral communications, impression management, social agents, and teams and sport. The components of athlete brand consist of on-field attributes and off-field attributes. In turn, the combined results of these two components are suggested to have three implications: athlete loyalty, team loyalty and sponsor's purchase intentions. A set of propositions is presented to link the three parts of the model. Implications for building and managing athlete brand and research directions for future studies are discussed.

Research question: Building on identity theory and stakeholder theory, this study explores the concept of fan identity based on self-perceived levels of power, urgency, internal and external legitimacy, and examines their effects on behavioural intentions.
Research methods: Data were collected from professional football fans (n = 532). A confirmatory factor analysis analysed the psychometric properties of the constructs, and a subsequent structural equation model examined the effects of fan identity on three behavioural intention measures.
Results and findings: The results indicate acceptable psychometric properties of the multidimensional construct of fan identity composed of power, urgency, internal legitimacy and external legitimacy. Power and internal legitimacy were significantly related to the intentions to attend more games and to purchase merchandise, with internal legitimacy also influencing intentions to recommend games to others.
Implications: This study provides the first exploration of fan identity as a multidimensional construct. The findings provide sport managers with useful insights on how to measure fan identity. This study serves as a catalyst for future research to understand the linkages between professional sport teams and their fans.

Purpose – Previous research has focused on the antecedents of fan loyalty or the link between fans and the team on sponsorship reactions, but no comprehensive framework has been developed to combine these
perspectives. The purpose of this paper is to present an integrated framework of how team brand experience during the season impacts sponsorship brand experience.
Design/methodology/approach – To create the conceptual model, a comprehensive search of peer-reviewed articles was conducted in electronic databases and journal reference lists. The authors identified constructs from prior research aimed at understanding sponsorship effectiveness. These constructs not only included aspects of the sponsorship brand experience, but also aspects within the team brand
experience that form the link between consumers’ responses derived from team-related stimuli and the responses evoked by sponsor-related stimuli.
Findings – This conceptual framework yields a set of 11 propositions regarding fans’ interactions with both team and sponsorship brands highlighting how to strengthen the bond between fans, teams, and sponsors. It provides a comprehensive understanding of this phenomenon and identifies opportunities to increase fan support and the appeal of professional teams to potential sponsors.
Originality/value – This study extends previous research by providing a unique conceptual framework that highlights the importance of understanding how fans view both the team brand and the sponsor brand. Several suggestions for future studies and strategies to increase the benefits for both teams and sponsors can be drawn from this framework.

The purpose of this study was to assess the relationship between motivation, engagement and personal and social responsibility among athletes. Based on the literature, a survey was conducted including measures of motivation, considering task orientation and ego orientation, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and amotivation. We also measured the components of engagement (dedication, confidence, vigor and enthusiasm) and the components of personal and social responsibility. A total of 517 athletes from different types of sports participated in the study. The results gathered through a structural equation model revealed that task orientation had the strongest relationship with personal responsibility and social responsibility, followed by engagement. Self-determination levels were not associated with personal and social responsibility. These results suggest that monitoring of task orientation and engagement levels should be performed by coaches as a strategy to develop personal and social responsibility among their athletes. Moreover, findings from this study provide scholars with a tool to aid them in managing athletes' levels of personal and social responsibility.

This study examines the relationships between service quality and value perceptions of the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil, controlling for the consumers’ opinion about hosting the event in the country. Data were collected from five cities (n = 3,042), and the results from a structural model indicate that teams, accessibilities, and event atmosphere have a positive influence on hedonic value and utilitarian value, while referees only have a positive impact on hedonic value. In turn, crowd experience has a negative effect on both hedonic and utilitarian value. Additionally, consumers’ favorable opinion about hosting the event showed a positive effect on both hedonic and utilitarian value. These findings suggest the need for an appealing ambiance and crowd vigilance to enhance the event’s value. In addition, the more people agree with hosting the event in Brazil the greater the value perception, highlighting the importance of explaining the event benefits to the host community.

Psychometric tools providing quantitative measures of the constructs of adaptive behavior, support needs, and quality of life (QOL) have received considerable attention within the field of intellectual disability (ID). The relationship between the three constructs was investigated by examining scores on the Adaptive Behavior Scale (ABS), Supports Intensity Scale (SIS), and Personal Outcomes Scale (POS; a QOL scale). Data from 146 Portuguese adults with ID revealed that: (a) the ABS domains showed a moderate negative relationship with the SIS subscales; (b) the absolute value of correlations between SIS/ABS domains were greater than either the ABS/POS or SIS/POS correlations; and (c) people with relatively stronger adaptive skills and less intense support needs experience a higher QOL. Additionally, adaptive behavior scores were a stronger predictor of personal outcomes than the support needs scores. Personal outcomes associated with QOL were similar when assessed by the POS through self-report and report-of-others measures. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.

Resumo: O objetivo deste estudo foi verificar se a percepção que os torcedores têm da qualidade da Copa do Mundo da FIFA Brasil 2014 varia consoante os locais onde o evento foi realizado. Foram recolhidos 3.042 questionários em cinco cidades-sede da Copa. Os resultados obtidos através de uma análise fatorial confirmatória indicaram boas qualidades psicométricas do modelo usado para medir a qualidade. Os testes MANOVA indicaram diferenças significativas na avaliação da qualidade do evento entre os participantes nas cinco cidades-sede. Os resultados foram discutidos, apontando-se as principais implicações na organização de eventos esportivos, bem como sugestões para futuras pesquisas. Abstract: The purpose of this study was to verify whether the perception of quality of the 2014 FIFA World Cup Brazil varies depending on where the event was hosted. A total of 3,042 questionnaires were collected in five cities hosting the World Cup. Results from confirmatory factor analysis indicated good psychometric qualities of the model used to measure quality. Through MANOVA tests, significant differences in the event quality were observed among participants from five host cities. The results were discussed and managerial implications and suggestions for future studies were provided. Resumen: El objetivo de este estudio fue determinar si la percepción que tiene la afición sobre la calidad de la Copa Mundial de la FIFA Brasil 2014, varía de acuerdo a las ciudades donde el evento fue realizado. Se recogieron 3.042 cuestionarios en cinco ciudades sede. Los resultados obtenidos mediante un análisis factorial confirmatorio indicaran buenas cualidades psicométricas del modelo utilizado para medir la calidad del evento. Los testes MANOVA indicaron diferencias significativas en la evaluación de la calidad del evento entre los participantes en las cinco ciudades. Los resultados han sido discutidos, señalando las principales implicaciones en la organización de eventos deportivos, así como sugerencias para futuras investigaciones..

The growth of sport sponsorship has led to an increase in the number of studies measuring sponsorship outcomes in different sport settings. Most studies, however, have focused on understanding the factors leading to purchase intentions. A more accurate assessment of sponsorship effectiveness would come through measuring actual purchase behaviors. The  purpose of this study was to examine a sport sponsorship model that included awareness, fit, attitude toward the sponsor, past purchases, purchase intentions, and actual purchases. Data were collected via longitudinal web surveys conducted with soccer fans from the United States. The results of a structural equation model provided evidence that the relationships among the analyzed sponsorship outcomes
did not have a significant effect on actual purchase behaviors. The discussion includes questions about the impact of sponsorship variables such as awareness, fit, attitude toward the sponsor, purchase intentions, and past purchases on actual purchase behaviors.

The purpose of this study was to understand the implications of athlete brand among fans. Using a conceptual framework derived from a literature review as a starting point, a set of interviews was conducted with fans from three different countries in order to develop a better understanding of the role of athlete brand on fans' responses towards an athlete, and the associated teams and sponsors. The findings indicate that fans' responses towards an athlete include media following, creating their own narratives, positive word-of-mouth, and resistance to changing a favourite athlete. In addition, responses to the athlete's team include potential team substitution when the athlete is transferred, support for multiple teams and increased revenue generation. Finally, the sponsors of the athletes may also have benefits among fans including brand recognition, positive image, purchase intentions and ignoring rival sponsors. The implications of these findings for building and managing an athlete's brand are discussed, and directions for future studies are provided.

Background/Objective: Quality of life (QOL) is actually helpful to organizations for guiding per-sonalized support plans and enhance personal outcomes. However, there is a lack of consensusabout the QOL construct in the field of intellectual disability (ID). This study aims (a) to analyzethe first-order factor structure (i.e., eight domains) of the Portuguese version of the PersonalOutcomes Scale (POS), and (b) to compare two alternative models of the higher factor structureof the QOL construct (i.e., Salamanca and Schalock).
Method: Both aims were investigated by examining self-report and report-of-others measures.Data were collected from 1,264 adults with mild or moderate levels of ID and respective proxies.
Results: Results from confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed evidence of suitable psychometric properties of the QOL dimensions. Findings also highlighted that the first-order model wasmore robust than either of the two second-order models. Nevertheless, the Schalock structurewas stronger than the Salamanca structure.
Conclusions: Although further research is needed, the results reveal that the Portuguese POSmay be a valid and reliable instrument to measure QOL of adults with ID. The implicationof these results are discussed highlighting the scale as a useful tool to serve as the basis forplanning and evaluating personalized supports.

The teaching personal-social responsibility (TPSR) model is a well-established approach for developing positive social behaviors. However, today’s research community has diagnosed the need to gather greater empirical evidence regarding the consistency of the evaluation tool in measuring personal-social responsibility levels. Thus, this study was geared towards testing the validity and reliability of a two factor model of the Personal and Social Responsibility Questionnaire (PSRQ) among athletes. A questionnaire was administered to 517 athletes, distributed into two representative samples of different competitive levels, sports and regions. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were used to examine the PSRQ’s factor structure. The scale showed good psychometric properties and the factor structure was stable in the two samples, providing evidence of cross validity. Implications and research directions of these results are discussed.

Sport psychology literature suggests that understanding engagement levels is pivotal to promote positive sporting experiences among athletes. The purpose of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the Athlete Engagement Questionnaire among Portuguese sport athletes. Two distinct samples of Portuguese athletes from different competitive levels were collected, and the results of a confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated a good fit of the model to the data. A review of the psychometric properties indicated that all factors showed good composite reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity. In addition, a multi-groups analysis showed the invariance of the model in two independent samples providing evidence of cross validity. Implications of these results for scholars and coaches are discussed and guidelines for future studies are suggested.